01 · Foundations
Parts of Speech
Every English word belongs to one of these 9 categories. Knowing them is the foundation for every grammar rule.
Nouns
People, places, things, ideas. (book, London, kindness, doctor)
- Common — city, dog, teacher
- Proper — Karachi, Eiffel Tower (capitalized)
- Countable — one apple, two apples
- Uncountable — water, music, advice
- Abstract — love, freedom, idea
- Collective — team, family, audience
Pronouns
Words that replace nouns. (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)
- Subject — I, you, he, she, it, we, they
- Object — me, you, him, her, it, us, them
- Possessive — my, your, his, her, its, our, their
- Reflexive — myself, yourself, himself…
- Demonstrative — this, that, these, those
- Relative — who, which, that, whose
Verbs
Action or state. The most important word in a sentence.
- Action — run, eat, read, write
- Linking — be, seem, become, feel
- Helping (Auxiliary) — be, have, do, will
- Modal — can, must, should, may
- Regular — work → worked → worked
- Irregular — go → went → gone
Adjectives
Describe nouns. (big, blue, intelligent, soft)
- Order — Opinion, Size, Age, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material, Purpose
- Example: a beautiful, small, old, round, brown, Italian, wooden coffee table
- Comparative — taller, more interesting
- Superlative — tallest, most interesting
Adverbs
Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. (quickly, very, here, yesterday)
- Manner — quickly, carefully, well
- Place — here, there, everywhere
- Time — now, today, soon, yesterday
- Frequency — always, often, never, sometimes
- Degree — very, too, quite, extremely
Prepositions
Show relationship of a noun to other words. (in, on, at, by, with, from)
- Time — at 5pm, on Monday, in July, since 2010
- Place — at the door, on the table, in the box
- Movement — to, from, into, onto, through
- Manner — by car, with care, in silence
Conjunctions
Connect words, phrases, or clauses.
- Coordinating (FANBOYS) — for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
- Subordinating — because, although, if, when, since, while, until
- Correlative pairs — both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also
Articles
A small set of words that go before nouns: a, an, the.
- a + consonant sound — a book, a university
- an + vowel sound — an apple, an hour
- the — specific or known — the sun, the book on the table
- (no article) — general plurals/uncountable — Music is fun.
Interjections
Short exclamations expressing emotion. Followed by ! or ,
- Wow! Oh! Ouch! Hey! Hurray!
- Hmm, I’m not sure.
- Oh no, I forgot my keys.
Pro tip: Most English words can shift category depending on use. “Run” can be a verb (I run) or a noun (a long run). Always check the role in the sentence.